By conducting a three-level meta-analysis of 616 randomized effect sizes from 45 studies, it was established that positive discipline interventions significantly contribute to enhancing parenting skills, fostering relationships, constructing a positive school climate, alleviating children's disruptive behaviours, and boosting caregivers' efficacy. The intervention duration and investigative methodology seem to moderate the treatment effects in the negative outcomes. The optimal intervention duration for positive results is less than 10 h, contrasting with 10-20 h for negative outcomes. Groups featuring participants with high-level education backgrounds are likely to experience enhanced intervention effects. Caregivers with children under 8 years of age exhibit a more pronounced effect in reinforcing positive aspects while parents with children aged 8 years or older achieve a more favourable impact in mitigating negative aspects. Compared to other programmes, PD exerts a more significant influence on promoting positive outcomes while less impact on reducing negative outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved)
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